International Legal Regime of Lunar Orbits: Will There Be Enough Space for Everybody?

INTRODUCTION. The exploration and use of the Moon, including its natural resources, is a priority in the space research activities of many participants. This is evidenced by the adoption of lunar space programmes at the national level, the preparation and launch of spacecrafts to the Moon and its surface, and discussions of future international legal regulation in international intergovernmental and nongovernmental organisations. It is important to ensure communication with the spacecraft through the use of lunar orbits in carrying out such lunar activities. In order to understand this process, it is necessary to examine the scientific and technical, as well as regulatory aspects that are interrelated, including the international legal regime for lunar orbits.

MATERIALS AND METHODS. The materials used in the research and for writing cover fundamental works of Soviet/Russian scientists in the field of international space law, as well as research works and analyses devoted to CIS-lunar space and orbits around the Moon. The assessment of the existing international legal regime on lunar orbits requires the application of not only formal-legal and comparative-legal research methods inherent in legal sciences, but also general scientific methods, such as analysis and synthesis, to understand the specific scientific and technical nature of the issue under consideration. An important place in the article was taken by the study of the conceptual definitions, namely such terms as “a Moon orbit”, “lunar orbit”, “CIS-lunar space”, “frozen orbit’”, “haloorbit”, “shielded zone of the Moon”, etc.

RESEARCH RESULTS. The lunar orbit refers to various trajectories of natural or artificial objects around the Moon. Orbits around the Moon are distinguished by the altitudes of migration, aposecretion and inclination. Separately distinguish ‘frozen’ orbits and haloorbits, which are characterized by special properties in terms of space objects placed on them. Spacecrafts use different radio-frequency spectrum in all types of lunar orbits. Most of the orbits around the Moon are unstable. The international legal status and regime of lunar orbits are regulated by documents of the International Telecommunication Union, among which there are a number of documents dealing with the issue of radio astronomy in the shielded zone of the Moon. The fundamental provisions of international space law also apply to the activity on use and exploration of CIS-lunar space and its orbits.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS. The following conclusions were obtained from the study. By 2027, the international community within the ITU will have to solve a number of issues related to the use of CISlunar space and orbits around the Moon, including radio astronomy, the use of repeater satellites, and the radio-frequency spectrum. Additionally, a system for coordinated lunar time is discussed. Disorderly use of lunar orbits may lead to the problem of space debris. An increase in the number of objects sent to the Moon may cause difficulties in astronomical research and limit the number of stable orbits for all interested participants. International cooperation of States and other interested participants in lunar activities within the framework of international organizations will contribute to solving the outlined problems.

1. Abashidze A.Kh., Solntsev A.M., Chernykh I.A. K 150-letiju so dnja uchrezhdenija Mezhdunarodnogo sojuza jelektrosvjazi – specializirovannogo uchrezhdenija OON [150th Anniversary of the International Telecommunication Union – UN Specialized Agency]. – Evrazijskij juridicheskij zhurnal [Eurasian Law Journal]. 2015. № 7 (86). P. 55-61. (In Russ.)

2. Chernykh I.A. Dejatel'nost' Komiteta OON po kosmosu v ramkah punkta povestki dnja "Vozmozhnye modeli pravovogo regulirovanija dejatel'nosti po issledovaniju, ispol'zovaniju i osvoeniju kosmicheskih resursov" [Activities of the COPUOS on the Agenda Item “General Exchange of Views on Potential Legal Models for Activities in Exploration, Exploitation and Utilization of Space Resources”] – Jelektronnoe setevoe izdanie «Mezhdunarodnyj pravovoj kur'er» [International Legal Courier]. 2022. № 1. P. 68-75. (In Russ.)

3. Chernykh I.A., Gugunskiy D.A., Solntsev A.M. Vlijanie jepistemicheskih soobshhestv na razrabotku budushhego mezhdunarodno-pravovogo regulirovanija dejatel'nosti na Lune [The Impact of Epistemic Communities on the Development of Future International Legal Regulation of Lunar Activities] – Vestnik Rossijskogo universiteta druzhby narodov. Serija: Juridicheskie nauki [RUDN Journal of Law]. 2024. V. 28, № 1. P. 215-230 (In Russ.)

4. Chhabra A., Sinha A., Beeson R., Weeden B. Incentivizing adoption of cislunar orbital debris mitigation policies via norms of behaviour. – Proceedings of IAC. 2024. IAC24,E9,IP,37,x85923. 11 p.

5. De Man Ph. Interpreting the UN space treaties as the basis for a sustainable regime of space resource exploration. – The Space Treaties at Crossroads: Considerations de Lege Ferenda. Ed. by George D. Kyriakopoulos, Maria Manoli. Cham: Springer. 2019. P. 15-33.

6. Ely T.A. Stable Constellations of Frozen Elliptical Inclined Lunar Orbits. – Journal of Astronaut Sciences. 2005. Vol. 53. P. 301-316.

7. Giannoni-Crystal F. Legal Issues for Lunar Orbiting Satellites and Suggested Solutions. – Journal of Space Law. 2023. Vol. 47. Issue 1. P. 67-118.

8. Glaude V. Protection of the shielded zone of the Moon for radio astronomy uses. – IET Conference Proceedings. 2023. Issue 48. P. 29–36.

9. Hobe St. Space Law. Second Edition. Baden-Baden: Nomos Verlagsgesellschaft. 2023. 279 p.

10. KangSan K., Tanushri J. Future of Space Traffic and Debris Management in Cislunar Space. – Proceedings of IAC. 2024. IAC-24,A6,8-E9.1,13,x86445. 5 p.

11. May Z.D., Qu М., Merrill R.G. Enabling Global Lunar Access for Human Landing Systems Staged at Earth-Moon L2 Southern Near Rectilinear Halo and Butterfly Orbits. – Proceedings of the AIAA Scitech 2020 Forum. 6–10 January 2020. 20 p.

12. Morozova E., Vasyanin Ya. International space law and satellite telecommunications. – Sovremennye problemy mezhdunarodnogo kosmicheskogo i vozdushnogo prava : materialy kruglogo stola XVII Mezhdunarodnogo kongressa “Blishhenkovskie chtenija” [Modern Issues of International Space and Air Law : Proceedings of the Round Table of the XVII International Congress “Blishchenko Readings”]. Moscow: RUDN. 2019. P. 91-128.

13. Solntsev A.M., Chernykh I.A. International Legal Aspects of Lunar Environmental Protection – Evrazijskij juridicheskij zhurnal [Eurasian Law Journal]. 2024. № 8. (In Russ.)

14. Vylegzhanin A.N., Yuzbashyan M.R., Alekseev M.A. Mezhdunarodno-pravovye perspektivy ispol'zovanija prirodnyh resursov Luny i drugih nebesnyh tel [International Legal Prospects for Using Natural Resources of the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies]. – Gornyj informacionno-analiticheskij bjulleten' [MIAB. Mining Inf. Anal. Bull]. 2021. (3-1). P. 155-172. (In Russ).

15. Zhukov G.P. Mezhdunarodnoe kosmicheskoe pravo [International space law]. – Novoe v zhizni, nauke, tehnike. Serija «Kosmonavtika, astronomija», 9 [New things in life, science, technology. The series "Cosmonautics, astronomy", 9]. Moscow: Znanie. 1971. 64 s.