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<article article-type="research-article" dtd-version="1.3" xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance" xml:lang="ru"><front><journal-meta><journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">mgimolaw</journal-id><journal-title-group><journal-title xml:lang="ru">Московский журнал международного права</journal-title><trans-title-group xml:lang="en"><trans-title>Moscow Journal of International Law</trans-title></trans-title-group></journal-title-group><issn pub-type="ppub">0869-0049</issn><issn pub-type="epub">2619-0893</issn><publisher><publisher-name>Moscow State Institute of International Relations</publisher-name></publisher></journal-meta><article-meta><article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.24833/0869-0049-2026-2-59-75</article-id><article-id custom-type="elpub" pub-id-type="custom">mgimolaw-2981</article-id><article-categories><subj-group subj-group-type="heading"><subject>Research Article</subject></subj-group><subj-group subj-group-type="section-heading" xml:lang="ru"><subject>ОТВЕТСТВЕННОСТЬ В МЕЖДУНАРОДНОМ ПРАВЕ</subject></subj-group><subj-group subj-group-type="section-heading" xml:lang="en"><subject>RESPONSIBILITY IN INTERNATIONAL LAW</subject></subj-group></article-categories><title-group><article-title>Международно-правовое регулирование незаконного оборота военных роботов</article-title><trans-title-group xml:lang="en"><trans-title>International Legal Regulation of Illegal Trafficking of Military Robots</trans-title></trans-title-group></title-group><contrib-group><contrib contrib-type="author" corresp="yes"><contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5619-4025</contrib-id><name-alternatives><name name-style="eastern" xml:lang="ru"><surname>Бегишев</surname><given-names>И. Р.</given-names></name><name name-style="western" xml:lang="en"><surname>Begishev</surname><given-names>I. R.</given-names></name></name-alternatives><bio xml:lang="ru"><p>Ильдар Рустамович БЕГИШЕВ - доктор юридических наук, член-корреспондент Академии военных наук Российской Федерации, заслуженный юрист Республики Татарстан, доцент, профессор кафедры уголовного права и процесса, главный научный сотрудник Научно-исследовательского института цифровых технологий и права, Казанский инновационный университет им. В.Г. Тимирясова</p><p>Московская ул., 42, Казань, 420111</p></bio><bio xml:lang="en"><p>Ildar R. BEGISHEV - Doctor of Juridical Sciences, Corresponding Member of the Academy of Military Sciences of the Russian Federation, Honored Lawyer of the Republic of Tatarstan, Associate Professor, Professor of the Department of Criminal Law and Procedure, Chief Researcher at the Scientific Research Institute of Digital Technologies and Law, Kazan Innovative University named after V.G. Timiryasov</p><p>42, Moskovskaya St., Kazan, 420111</p></bio><email xlink:type="simple">begishev@mail.ru</email><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff-1"/></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author" corresp="yes"><contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">https://orcid.org/0009-0004-5309-6410</contrib-id><name-alternatives><name name-style="eastern" xml:lang="ru"><surname>Кийко</surname><given-names>Д. С.</given-names></name><name name-style="western" xml:lang="en"><surname>Kiiko</surname><given-names>D. S.</given-names></name></name-alternatives><bio xml:lang="ru"><p>Денис Сергеевич КИЙКО - аспирант кафедры уголовного права и процесса</p><p>Московская ул., 42, Казань, 420111</p></bio><bio xml:lang="en"><p>Denis S. KIIKO - Postgraduate student of the Department of Criminal Law and Procedure</p><p>42, Moskovskaya St., Kazan, 420111</p></bio><email xlink:type="simple">deniskiiko@yandex.ru</email><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff-1"/></contrib></contrib-group><aff-alternatives id="aff-1"><aff xml:lang="ru"><institution>Казанский инновационный университет имени В.Г. Тимирясова (ИЭУП)</institution><country>Россия</country></aff><aff xml:lang="en"><institution>Kazan Innovative University named after V. G. Timiryasov (IEML)</institution><country>Russian Federation</country></aff></aff-alternatives><pub-date pub-type="collection"><year>2026</year></pub-date><pub-date pub-type="epub"><day>29</day><month>07</month><year>2026</year></pub-date><volume>0</volume><issue>2</issue><fpage>59</fpage><lpage>75</lpage><permissions><copyright-statement>Copyright &amp;#x00A9; Бегишев И.Р., Кийко Д.С., 2026</copyright-statement><copyright-year>2026</copyright-year><copyright-holder xml:lang="ru">Бегишев И.Р., Кийко Д.С.</copyright-holder><copyright-holder xml:lang="en">Begishev I.R., Kiiko D.S.</copyright-holder><license xml:lang="ru" license-type="creative-commons-attribution" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xlink:type="simple"><license-p>Данная работа распространяется под лицензией Creative Commons Attribution 4.0.</license-p></license><license xml:lang="en" license-type="creative-commons-attribution" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xlink:type="simple"><license-p>This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.</license-p></license></permissions><self-uri xlink:href="https://www.mjil.ru/jour/article/view/2981">https://www.mjil.ru/jour/article/view/2981</self-uri><abstract><sec><title>ВВЕДЕНИЕ</title><p>ВВЕДЕНИЕ. Данная статья посвящена критическому анализу международно-правовых аспектов регулирования незаконного оборота военных роботов. Актуальность исследования обусловлена технологической революцией в военной сфере, характеризующейся появлением автономных систем, способных самостоятельно идентифицировать цели и применять летальную силу, а также параллельным формированием глобального теневого рынка их незаконного распространения. Авторы констатируют глубокий кризис существующей системы международного права перед лицом новых вызовов в сфере технологий. Традиционные режимы, включая нормы международного гуманитарного права, Конвенцию о конкретных видах обычного оружия и многосторонние договоренности об экспортном контроле, демонстрируют свою системную неэффективность. Их ключевые недостатки заключаются во фрагментарности, ориентации преимущественно на государства и классические виды вооружений, а также в хроническом отставании от темпов технологического развития. Это порождает ряд фундаментальных правовых проблем, среди которых можно выделить отсутствие универсальных юридических дефиниций и критериев классификации автономных систем, правовые пробелы, позволяющие негосударственным акторам (террористическим группам, организованной преступности) беспрепятственно получать доступ к критическим компонентам и готовым платформам, и, наконец, полную неопределенность в вопросах установления и реализации ответственности за ущерб, причиненный в результате действий автономных систем, обращающихся на черном рынке. В качестве стратегического ответа на эти вызовы в статье обосновывается необходимость выработки нового, комплексного международно-правового подхода. Его ядром должна стать разработка и принятие специализированного многостороннего договора, который установил бы четкие запреты, унифицировал терминологию и создал бы действенные механизмы контроля и верификации. Параллельно предлагается комплекс сопутствующих мер по усилению национального законодательства, а также развитию оперативного международного сотрудничества в расследовании инцидентов и обмене данными. Целью работы является формирование концептуальной основы для создания устойчивого правового барьера против распространения опасных технологий и защиты основных принципов международного правопорядка в эпоху развития автономных вооружений.</p></sec><sec><title>МАТЕРИАЛЫ И МЕТОДЫ</title><p>МАТЕРИАЛЫ И МЕТОДЫ. В основе данного исследования лежит комплексная доктринально-аналитическая методология, которая характерна для фундаментальных юридических работ в области международного права. Исследование носит теоретико-прикладной характер и включает в себя как глубокий анализ уже существующих правовых норм (международные договоры, конвенции, уставы международных организаций, документы международных конференций и др.), теоретических подходов к исследованию проблемы (научные монографии, статьи в рецензируемых академических журналах и др.) и практических подходов (открытые отчеты государств и др.), так и разработку научно обоснованных предложений, направленных на совершенствование правового регулирования. Исследование преимущественно использует качественный подход, который фокусируется на интерпретации правовых текстов, выявлении смысловых коллизий, оценке эффективности правовых механизмов и прогнозировании развития регулирования. Основными методами исследования являются как общенаучные методы (анализ, синтез, индукция, дедукция), так и частнонаучные методы (формально-юридический анализ, риск-ориентированный подход).</p></sec><sec><title>РЕЗУЛЬТАТЫ ИССЛЕДОВАНИЯ</title><p>РЕЗУЛЬТАТЫ ИССЛЕДОВАНИЯ. Авторы приходят к выводу о системной неэффективности существующих норм международного права в сфере противодействия незаконному обороту военных роботов. К ключевым правовым пробелам относятся: отсутствие универсальных юридически обязательных дефиниций и критериев классификации; неспособность действующих режимов контролировать оборот компонентов двойного назначения и деятельность негосударственных субъектов; а также неработоспособность традиционных механизмов привлечения к ответственности за действия автономных систем. В целях противодействия этим вызовам научная работа обосновывает необходимость формирования комплексного международно-правового подхода. Его стержнем должно стать заключение нового специализированного международного договора, который дополнится мерами по гармонизации национального законодательства, внедрению современных инструментов мониторинга и укреплению межгосударственного оперативного взаимодействия.</p></sec><sec><title>ОБСУЖДЕНИЕ И ВЫВОДЫ</title><p>ОБСУЖДЕНИЕ И ВЫВОДЫ. Анализ ситуации позволяет сделать вывод о том, что существующие нормы международного права не могут эффективно решать актуальные проблемы, связанные с незаконным распространением военных роботов. Традиционные механизмы контроля над вооружениями и нормы гуманитарного права, которые были разработаны на основе государство-центричной модели, с трудом адаптируются к новым реалиям, связанным с быстрым развитием технологий и их доступностью на рынке. Это приводит к правовым пробелам и уязвимостям в регулировании. В связи с этим необходимо пересмотреть подходы к управлению и разработать более комплексный и последовательный подход. Он должен включать в себя унификацию национальных законов и правил, внедрение стратегического мониторинга оборота, который будет сосредоточен на критически важных этапах и компонентах логистической цепи; официальное оформление международного взаимодействия в сфере судебных экспертиз и расследований для обеспечения эффективного правоприменения и прозрачности. Создание такого всеобъемлющего и гибкого механизма имеет большое значение для международного сообщества в контексте снижения серьезных угроз безопасности, связанных с неконтролируемым распространением автономных военных технологий.</p></sec></abstract><trans-abstract xml:lang="en"><sec><title>INTRODUCTION</title><p>INTRODUCTION. This article provides a critical analysis of the international legal aspects of regulating illicit traﬃcking in military robots, which is a new and rapidly growing threat to global stability. The relevance of this research is driven by technological revolution in the military sphere, characterized by autonomous systems capable of identifying targets and using lethal force independently, coupled with a parallel formation of a global black market for their illegal distribution. The authors identify a deep crisis within the current framework of international law to address this challenge. Traditional approaches, including norms of international humanitarian law and the Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons, as well as multilateral export controls, demonstrate systemic weaknesses. Their main shortcomings are their fragmentation and their primary focus on states and conventional weapons. Their chronic failure to keep pace with the rate of technological advancement gives rise to a number of fundamental legal problems. These include the absence of universal legal deﬁnitions and classiﬁcation criteria for autonomous systems, regulatory gaps that allow non-state actors, such as terrorist groups and organized criminal networks, to gain access to critical components and ready-made platforms without consequences, and ultimately, a lack of clarity regarding attribution and enforcement of liability for damage caused by autonomous systems circulating in the black market. As a strategic response, the article argues for the urgent need to develop a new, comprehensive international legal approach that should include the elaboration and adoption of a multilateral treaty establishing clear prohibitions and harmonizing terminology, creating eﬀective control and veriﬁcation mechanisms. At the same time, a set of complementary measures are proposed, including strengthening national legislation, modernizing customs procedures and ﬁnancial oversight, fostering enhanced international cooperation in incident investigation and data exchange. The goal of the research is to create a conceptual basis for establishing a strong legal barrier against proliferation of these dangerous technologies and protecting the fundamental principles of international law in the era of autonomous weapons.</p></sec><sec><title>MATERIALS AND METHODS</title><p>MATERIALS AND METHODS. This research is based on a comprehensive doctrinal and analytical methodology, which is typical of fundamental legal work in the ﬁeld of international law. It is both theoretical and applied, and includes an in-depth analysis of existing legal norms, such as international treaties, conventions, charters of international organizations, and documents from international conferences. It also includes analysis of theoretical approaches to problem research in scientiﬁc monographs, articles published in peer-reviewed academic journals. The research also examines practical approach, such as public reports from States. Finally, the research aims to develop scientiﬁcally sound proposals for improving legal regulation in the area under study. The study primarily employs a qualitative approach, which focuses on interpreting legal texts, identifying semantic conﬂicts, assessing the eﬀectiveness of legal mechanisms, and forecasting the evolution of regulations. The main research methods are both general scientiﬁc methods (analysis, synthesis, induction, deduction) and private scientiﬁc methods (formal legal analysis, risk-based approach).</p></sec><sec><title>RESEARCH RESULTS</title><p>RESEARCH RESULTS. The research concludes that existing international law is fundamentally inadequate to address the illicit traﬃcking of military robots. Key deﬁciencies include the absence of universally binding deﬁnitions, ineﬀective control over dual-use components and non-state actors, and unworkable accountability mechanisms for autonomous systems. To address this, the study proposes a comprehensive legal framework centered on a new international treaty, supported by enhanced national regulations, modernized monitoring tools, and stronger international cooperation.</p><p>DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS. This analysis concludes that the current frameworks of international law are fundamentally unprepared to deal with the distinct and rapidly evolving challenges posed by the illegal spread of military robotics. Traditional arms control and humanitarian law, with their static and state-centric foundations, struggle to accommodate the reality of these rapidly developing, commercially available, soﬅware-driven technologies. This gap has led to signiﬁcant governance deﬁcits, allowing critical vulnerabilities to persist. Therefore, this study advocates for a necessary shiﬅ in paradigm towards a more coherent and integrated approach to governance. This new approach should thoughtfully combine several key elements: an international treaty to establish clear legal prohibitions and control measures must be integrated with stronger complementary measures. These key measures include harmonizing national regulatory frameworks, implementing strategic trade controls targeting critical algorithms and supply chain components, and formalizing international forensic and investigative cooperation to ensure credible enforcement and accountability. Developing such a comprehensive and adaptive regime is crucial for the international community to mitigate profound security risks arising from the uncontrolled proliferation of autonomous military capabilities.</p></sec></trans-abstract><kwd-group xml:lang="ru"><kwd>боевой робот</kwd><kwd>военная робототехника</kwd><kwd>военный робот</kwd><kwd>гуманитарное право</kwd><kwd>законодательство</kwd><kwd>искусственный интеллект</kwd><kwd>международное право</kwd><kwd>робот</kwd><kwd>цифровые технологии</kwd></kwd-group><kwd-group xml:lang="en"><kwd>combat robot</kwd><kwd>military robotics</kwd><kwd>military robot</kwd><kwd>humanitarian law</kwd><kwd>legislation</kwd><kwd>artificial intelligence</kwd><kwd>international law</kwd><kwd>robot</kwd><kwd>digital technologies</kwd></kwd-group></article-meta></front><back><ref-list><title>References</title><ref id="cit1"><label>1</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Abedi F., Saari U. A., Hakola L. 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